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Mercury poisoning differs from the other forms of metal poisoning in that it causes neurological symptoms rather than digestive disorders.
Mercury is usually targeted because it is the most common toxicity that most people have - for example, amalgams in teeth contain over 50% mercury. The remainder is made up of silver and sometimes tin, aluminum and other metals. The mercury escapes the amalgam as a vapor and is breathed into the body of the person carrying the amalgam.
Causes & Development
In cases of Acute Mercury Poisoning, the source of mercury poisoning is primarily contamination of food by polluted water containing mercuric compounds from industrial waste or organic mercury contained in some fungicides. Food or feed grains treated with mercury-containing fungicides are a potential source for transmission of the metal through both animal and cereal foods.
Signs & Symptoms
The onset time for Acute Mercury Poisoning is one week or more, at which time the symptoms of numbness, weakness of the legs, spastic paralysis and impaired vision are noted. Blindness and coma are extreme symptoms of the poisoning.
Diagnosis & Tests
In cases of Chronic Mercury Poisoning, the symptoms of low-level, chronic mercury exposure and toxicity can be very general and difficult to diagnose based on symptoms alone. In addition, individuals show varying levels of sensitivity to the presence of mercury: amalgam removal may be very important in the recovery process of one person, while for another it may be best to leave the amalgams in place.
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Signs, symptoms & indicators of Mercury Toxicity (Amalgam Illness):
Conditions that suggest Mercury Toxicity (Amalgam Illness): | | | | | Aging |  Alzheimer's Disease | Because Alzheimer's patients often exhibit increased concentration of heavy metals such as mercury in their blood and brain, toxic exposure is believed to play an important role. The areas of the brain that mercury favors are those involved with memory (amygdala and hippocampus). Is is not just aluminum that is implicated in Alzheimer's. |
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Allergy |
Allergy to Foods (Hidden) |
Autoimmune |
Multiple Sclerosis| | A 1987 study showed that the levels of mercury in the spinal fluid of MS patients was 8 times higher than normal. [Silberod, R: A comparison of mental health of multiple sclerosis patients with silver/mercury dental fillings; Psychological Reports 70: pp.1139-51, 1992]. Mercury has long been linked to autoimmune diseases such as MS because of its affinity to attach to collagen tissue, which is the most common protein in the body. Polluted by mercury infiltration, the collagen is seen by the immune system as 'not self.' |
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Circulation |
 Cardiomyopathy| | Mercury levels in the heart tissue of individuals who died from Idiopathic Dilated Cardiomyopathy (IDCM) were found to be on average 22,000 times higher than in individuals who died of other forms of heart disease. [J Amer Coll Cardiology v33(6) pp.1578-1583,1999] |
Angina| | Mercury poisoning may be causing chest pain or angina, especially in anyone under age 45. |
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Digestion |
Sensitive Teeth
Diverticular Disease
Diarrhea
Constipation
Bad Breath (Halitosis) |
Immunity |
Chronic Fatigue / Fibromyalgia Syndrome
Weakened Immune System| | In vitro studies suggest that even low, environmentally relevant exposure levels of mercury, which are not toxic, still contribute to immune dysfunction by interfering with proper lymphocyte functioning. [Scand J Immunol 50(3): pp.233-241] |
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Infections |
 Yeast / Candida Infection
Pharyngitis ("Strep Throat")
Canker Sores (Aphthous Ulcers) |
Lab Values |
High Total Cholesterol| | Elevated total cholesterol greater than 270mg may be associated with mercury toxicity. |
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Mental |
Poor Memory| | Short term memory loss is initially the most common complaint associated with mercury toxicity. |
Depression
Anxiety
Panic Attacks |
Metabolic |
Hypoglycemia| | Heavy metals such as mercury, cadmium, lead and thallium poison the glucose metabolizing catalysts, thus reducing the flow of energy throughout the body. It is interesting to note that the symptoms of heavy metal poisoning are similar to symptoms associated with hypoglycemia i.e. hyperactivity, mood swings, manic depressive behavior, poor concentration and impulsive and unpredictable behavior. |
Headaches
Tinnitus
Insomnia |
Musculo-Skeletal |
Muscle Cramps / Twitching| | Unusual tics or twitching of facial muscles have been associated with mercury toxicity, as well as with muscle cramps in cases of high occupational exposure to mercury. |
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Nervous System |
Neuritis/Neuropathy
Tremors |
Organ Health |
Vertigo
Kidney Disease
Chronic Renal Insufficiency |
Skin-Hair-Nails |
Night Sweats| | This symptom may be one of many associated with mercury toxicity. |
Dry skin| | Exceptionally dry skin has been associated with mercury toxicity. |
Cold Hands and Feet
Male Hair Loss| | Mercury toxicity can cause hair loss. |
Female Hair Loss| | Mercury toxicity can cause hair loss. |
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Symptoms - Environment |
Severe/mild/moderate mercury toxicity (confirmed)
Counter-indicators:
 Confirmed lack of mercury toxicity |
Symptoms - Head - Eyes/Ocular |
Bulging eyes from hyperthyroidism| | Marked proptosis (bug eyes), or eye changes typical of hyperthyroidism have been associated with mercury toxicity. |
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Uro-Genital |
Nocturia |
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Risk factors for Mercury Toxicity (Amalgam Illness): | | | | | Childhood | Delayed/early/late puberty onset |
Metabolic |
Bruxism (Clenching/Grinding Teeth)| | People with mercury amalgam fillings who grind their teeth or chew gum can suffer additional mercury release. |
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Supplements and Medications |
Counter-indicators:
Heavy metal detoxification use |
Symptoms - Food - Intake |
Moderate/low/high cold water fish consumption| | Although mercury occurs naturally in the environment, of bigger concern is the mercury that is released into the air through industrial pollution. When mercury falls from the air into water, it is converted into "methylmercury" by bacteria in the water. Methylmercury accumulates in streams and oceans where it is absorbed by fish as they feed in these waters. Mercury levels are highest in older, larger predatory fish. Larger predatory fish accumulate high levels of mercury by eating smaller fish (that contain mercury) who have eaten even smaller fish (that contain mercury).
Nearly all fish and shellfish contain trace amounts, but some fish contain much more, depending on how big they are, how long they live, what they eat, and where they were caught. According to an FDA survey, the fish with the highest average levels of mercury are, in order:
(Highest levels of mercury - at least 1 part per million): tilefish (golden bass or golden snapper), shark, swordfish, king mackerel; ("Mid-levels" of mercury - around 1/2 part per million): grouper, orange roughy, marlin, Spanish mackerel, tuna. |
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Symptoms - Head - Mouth/Oral |
(Much) past amalgam filling removal
Having amalgam fillings| | It has been erroneously taught in dental school that amalgam is a stable alloy which does not release mercury in the mouth. A person with 8 fillings releases 120mcg of mercury into the mouth every day. As much as 17mcg of that gets absorbed into the body. In its vapor form the mercury is fat-soluble, and favors lungs and mucous membranes at first. Then it crosses tissue barriers, including the blood-brain barrier and also the placenta. Mercury then accumulates in the brain, the gut, and the liver.
The largest study of amalgam toxicity ever done took place at the University of Tübingen in Germany in 1995. With over 20,000 subjects, this study showed conclusively that mercury from amalgams is continually released in quantities large enough to be identified in the saliva. The designer of the study, Dr. Peter Krauss, noted that in some patients the amount of mercury in saliva could be as high as 100 times the WHO 'safe' level. |
Poorly-removed amalgams
Counter-indicators:
Carefully-removed amalgams
Not having any amalgam fillings |
Symptoms - Muscular |
History of tender muscles |
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Mercury Toxicity (Amalgam Illness) can lead to: | | | | | Circulation | Cardiomyopathy| | Mercury levels in the heart tissue of individuals who died from Idiopathic Dilated Cardiomyopathy (IDCM) were found to be on average 22,000 times higher than in individuals who died of other forms of heart disease. [J Amer Coll Cardiology v33(6) pp.1578-1583,1999] |
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Recommendations and treatments for Mercury Toxicity (Amalgam Illness): | | | | | Amino Acid / Protein |  Cysteine / N-Acetyl-Cysteine (NAC)| | The ability of NAC to enhance methylmercury excretion when given orally, its relatively low toxicity, and its wide availability in the clinical setting indicate that it may be an ideal therapeutic agent for use in cases of methylmercury poisoning. [Environ Health Perspectives, 1998, 106(5): pp.267-71]
Earlier concerns over NAC causing mercury to accumulate in the brain and kidneys, as can occur with L-cysteine, now appear to be unfounded. The initial concerns were opinions only, based on L-cysteine research, not NAC research. Still, some clinicians feel that symptom worsening occurs with the use of large doses of NAC (over 300mg per day), especially if they already have elevated levels of L-cysteine. If L-cystiene levels are elevated, cystiene containing products such as protein powders should be avoided. |
L-Glutathione| | Glutathione can cross the blood-brain barrier; it can remove mercury, cadmium and other toxic metals from the brain. |
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Botanical |
Chlorella| | Using large doses of chlorella facilitates fecal mercury excretion. After the intestinal mercury burden is lowered by other means, mercury will more readily migrate into the intestine from other body tissues where chlorella will aid in its removal. |
 Garlic| | Garlic chelates heavy metals such as cadmium, gold, lead and mercury, and acts as a detoxifier. |
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Dental |
 Dental Metal Removal| | Dental amalgam removal is an important first step in reducing your ongoing exposure to mercury. |
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Detoxification |
Heavy Metal Detoxification / Avoidance
Chelation Therapy| | EDTA is so effective at removing unwanted minerals and metals from the blood, it has been the standard-FDA-approved-treatment for lead, mercury, aluminum and cadmium poisoning for more than 50 years. |
Attapulgite| | Activated Attapulgite (clay) chelates (bonds) with heavy metals throughout the intestinal tract. |
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Diet |
High/Increased Fiber Diet| | Sodium alginate as well as other gel-forming fibers have been shown to inhibit heavy metal uptake in the gut. |
Cilantro
Not recommended:
 Increased Fish Consumption| | There is increasing concern over fish, which are being found to contain significant levels of mercury. These levels are coming from eating smaller fish which have been bio-accumulating mercury over time. The large predator fish, such as swordfish/marlin, ahi (yellow fin tuna), king mackerel, shark (often sold as imitation crab), and tilefish have the highest accumulations because they are at the top of the food chain (well, almost!) Many people who consume significant amounts of these fish are showing very elevated levels of mercury in their hair. The FDA is currently recommending most other fish as safe for consumption at amounts of 1kg per week or less. |
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Lab Tests/Rule-Outs |
Hair Analysis| | Hair analysis is a reasonable and inexpensive first step toward diagnosing heavy metal toxicity. |
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Mineral |
Selenium| | Selenium chelates heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, mercury and silver. |
Molybdenum
MSM (Methyl Sulfonyl Methane)| | Mobilization AND excretion are required for mercury detoxification. Consuming foods high in sulfur such as garlic, onions, beans, and eggs or supplemental sulfur in the form of MSM can help move mercury around but it is only bound loosely and caution is advised. There have been reported cases of reversible cataract development from individuals mobilizing mercury without excreting it. Consult a qualified doctor for a detoxification protocol appropriate for you. |
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Nutrient |
Alpha Lipoic Acid| | Sources of sulfur such as alpha lipoic acid, MSM and garlic are helpful for protection against heavy metals in general and specifically useful in mercury toxicity. Alpha lipoic acid should not be used alone, as it only mobilizes mercury with a weak bond. Without additional chelators present, such as DMPS or DMSA, the mercury may just redistribute elsewhere in the body instead of being removed. |
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KEY | | Weak or unproven link | | | Strong or generally accepted link | | | Proven definite or direct link | | | Strongly counter-indicative | | | May do some good | | | Likely to help | | | Highly recommended | | | Reasonably likely to cause problems |
GLOSSARY
Acute
An illness or symptom of sudden onset, which generally has a short duration.
Allergy (Allergies)
Hypersensitivity caused by exposure to a particular antigen (allergen), resulting in an increased reactivity to that antigen on subsequent exposure, sometimes with harmful immunologic consequences.
Alzheimer's Disease (Alzheimer's)
A progressive disease of the middle-aged and elderly, characterized by loss of function and death of nerve cells in several areas of the brain, leading to loss of mental functions such as memory and learning. Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia.
Angina
Angina Pectoris: Severe, restricting chest pain with sensations of suffocation caused by temporary reduction of oxygen to the heart muscle through narrowed diseased coronary arteries. Often triggered by exertion. Angina Vasomotoria: Like the previous, but less dangerous and more frequently caused by purely neurologic stimulus. The pain is more spasmodic and there is usually little actual blood vessel blockage.
Asthma (Asthmatic)
A lung disorder marked by attacks of breathing difficulty, wheezing, coughing, and thick mucus coming from the lungs. The episodes may be triggered by breathing foreign substances (allergens) or pollutants, infection, vigorous exercise, or emotional stress. Extrinsic Asthma is triggered by pollen, chemicals or some other external agent; Intrinsic Asthma is triggered by boggy membranes, congested tissues, or other native causes… even adrenalin stress or exertion.
Autoimmune Disease (Autoimmune, Autoimmunity)
One of a large group of diseases in which the immune system turns against the body's own cells, tissues and organs, leading to chronic and often deadly conditions. Examples include multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus, Bright's disease and diabetes.
Bacteria (Bacterial, Bacterium)
Microscopic germs. Some bacteria are "harmful" and can cause disease, while other "friendly" bacteria protect the body from harmful invading organisms.
Cardiovascular
Pertaining to the heart and blood vessels.
Cataract (Cataracts)
A steadily worsening disease of the eye in which the lens becomes cloudy as a result of the precipitation of proteins. Most cataracts are caused by the functions of the body breaking down. Eye trauma, such as from a puncture wound, may also result in cataracts.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
A collective term for the brain, spinal cord, their nerves, and the sensory end organs. More broadly, this can even include the
neurotransmitting hormones instigated by the CNS that control the chemical nervous system, the endocrine glands.
Chlorella
A freshwater, nutritive, single-celled green algae superfood; a regenerative tonic, blood builder, anti-viral, anti-biotic, and anti-carcinogenic that enhances the immune system. It facilitates heavy metals being removed (chelated) from the body.
Cholesterol
A waxy, fat-like substance manufactured in the liver and found in all tissues, it facilitates the transport and absorption of fatty acids. In foods, only animal products contain cholesterol. An excess of cholesterol in the bloodstream can contribute to the development of atherosclerosis.
Chronic (Chronicity)
Usually referring to chronic illness: Illness extending over a long period of time.
Chronic Renal Failure (Chronic Renal Insufficiency, Kidney Failure, Renal Insufficiency)
(CRF) Irreversible, progressive impaired kidney function. The early stage, when the kidneys no longer function properly but do not yet require dialysis, is known as Chronic Renal Insufficiency (CRI). CRI can be difficult to diagnose, as symptoms are not usually apparent until kidney disease has progressed significantly. Common symptoms include a frequent need to urinate and swelling, as well as possible anemia, fatigue, weakness, headaches and loss of appetite. As the disease progresses, other symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, bad breath and itchy skin may develop as toxic metabolites, normally filtered out of the blood by the kidneys, build up to harmful levels. Over time (up to 10 or 20 years), CRF generally progresses from CRI to End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD, also known as Kidney Failure). Patients with ESRD no longer have kidney function adequate to sustain life and require dialysis or kidney transplantation. Without proper treatment, ESRD is fatal.
Collagen
The primary protein within white fibers of connective tissue and the organic substance found in tendons, ligaments, cartilage, skin, teeth and bone.
Cramp (Cramping, Cramps)
A sudden, involuntary, painful muscular contraction.
EDTA
Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetic Acid. An organic molecule used in chelation therapy.
FDA
The (American) Food and Drug Administration. It is the official government agency that is responsible for ensuring that what we put into our bodies - particularly food and drugs - is safe and effective.
Glucose
A sugar that is the simplest form of carbohydrate. It is commonly referred to as blood sugar. The body breaks down carbohydrates in foods into glucose, which serves as the primary fuel for the muscles and the brain.
Glutathione
A natural sulfur-bearing peptide formed from the linking of three amino acids: glutamic acid, cysteine and glycine. Glutathione acts as an antioxidant and detoxicant and is involved with the selenium-containing enzyme glutathione peroxidase. Glutathione is also involved in amino acid transport across cell membranes and is a powerful free radical scavenger and antioxidant that removes unwanted substances from the body.
Hair Analysis
A painless and easy way to test for levels of toxic and essential minerals. A small amount of hair is taken from the nape of the neck and the mineral content of the hair is determined. A computerized analysis reveals the person's condition for the last three months.
Hippocampus
Brain structure that forms the edge of the cortical mantle of the cerebral hemisphere.
Hyperthyroidism (Hyperthyroid)
An abnormal condition of the thyroid gland resulting in excessive secretion of thyroid hormones characterized by an increased metabolism and weight loss.
Hypoglycemia
A condition characterized by an abnormally low blood glucose level. Severe hypoglycemia is rare and dangerous. It can be caused by medications such as insulin (diabetics are prone to hypoglycemia), severe physical exhaustion, and some illnesses.
Idiopathic
Arising spontaneously or from an obscure or unknown cause.
Immune System (Immune Response, Immunity)
A complex that protects the body from disease organisms and other foreign bodies. The system includes the humoral immune response and the cell-mediated response. The immune system also protects the body from invasion by making local barriers and inflammation. The process may involve acquired immunity (the ability to learn and remember a specific infectious agent), or innate immunity (the genetically programmed system of responses that attack, digest, remove, and initiate inflammation and tissue healing).
Kidneys (Kidney, Renal)
Bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. They are located near the middle of the back, just below the rib cage. The kidneys are sophisticated reprocessing machines, each day handling about 50 gallons of blood to sift out about half a gallon of waste products and extra water. The waste and extra water become urine, which flows to the bladder through tubes called ureters. The actual filtering occurs in tiny units inside the kidneys called nephrons. Every kidney has about a million nephrons. In a nephron, a glomerulus -- which is a tiny blood vessel, or capillary -- intertwines with a tiny urine-collecting tube called a tubule. A complicated chemical exchange takes place, as waste materials and water leave your blood and enter your urinary system. The kidneys recycle chemicals such as sodium, phosphorus, and potassium and thus regulate their levels. Renal: Pertaining to the kidneys.
Kilogram (kg, kgs, Kilogramme, Kilogrammes, Kilograms)
1000 grams, 2.2lbs.
Lipoic acid
(Thioctic Acid) A sulfur-containing coenzyme used in the energy process which is also an extremely powerful antioxidant capable of trapping many different types of free radicals in the body. Has been used therapeutically in the treatment of AIDS and diabetes because of the synergy between alpha-lipoic acid and vitamin E and the interlocking cycles which lead to better optimization of antioxidant nutrients. It is also able of chelating (pulling out) heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury.
Liver (Hepatic)
The largest and one of the most complex organs of the body, the liver is responsible for much of the metabolism of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. It is the site of much of the body's detoxification. It is connected very closely with digestion and the regulation of blood sugar, among many other functions. Found behind the ribs on the right side of the abdomen, it has many important functions such as removing harmful material from the blood, making enzymes and bile that help digest food, and converting food into substances needed for life and growth. Hepatic: Pertaining to the liver.
Lung (Lungs, Pulmonary)
Organ of the body, located in the chest cavity which is designed to bring oxygen from the air into the blood stream, while also expelling carbon dioxide and other waste gases out of the body. Pulmonary: Related to the lungs.
Lymph Nodes (Axillary Nodes, Inguinal Nodes, Lymph Gland, Lymph Glands, Lymph Node, Lymphatic)
Small, bean-shaped nodes at various points throughout the body that function to filter the lymph fluid and attempt to destroy the microorganisms and abnormal cells which collect there. The most common locations are the neck (both sides and front), armpit (axillary) and groin (inguinal), but also under the jaw and behind the ears. Swollen or painful lymph nodes generally result from localized or systemic infection, abscess formation, or malignancy. Other causes of enlarged lymph nodes are extremely rare. Physical examination for lymph nodes includes pressing on them to check for size, texture, warmth, tenderness and mobility. Most lymph nodes can not be felt until they become swollen, and then will only be tender when pressed or massaged. A lymph node that is painful even without touching indicates greater swelling. Lymph nodes can usually be distinguished from other growths because they generally feel small, smooth, round or oval-shaped and somewhat mobile when attempts are made to push them sideways. Because less fat covers the lymph nodes in children, they are easier to feel, even when they are not busy filtering germs or making antibodies. Childrens' nodes enlarge faster, get bigger in response to an infection and stay swollen longer than an adult's. Also known (incorrectly) as lymph glands.
Lymphocyte
A type of white blood cell found in lymph, blood, and other specialized tissue such as bone marrow and tonsils, constituting between 22 and 28 percent of all white blood cells in the blood of a normal adult human being. B- and T-lymphocytes are crucial components of the immune system. The B-lymphocytes are primarily responsible for antibody production. The T-lymphocytes are involved in the direct attack against living organisms. The helper T-lymphocyte, a subtype, is the main cell infected and destroyed by the AIDS virus.
Metabolism (Metabolic, Metabolize, Metabolizes, Metabolizing)
The chemical processes of living cells in which energy is produced in order to replace and repair tissues and maintain a healthy body. Responsible for the production of energy, biosynthesis of important substances, and degradation of various compounds. Also defined as the sum total of changes in an organism in order to achieve a balance (homeostasis): Catabolic burns up, anabolic stores and builds up; the sum of their work is metabolism.
Microgram (mcg, Micrograms, ug)
0.000001 or a millionth of a gram.
Milligram (mg, Milligrams)
0.001 or a thousandth of a gram.
Mineral (Minerals)
Plays a vital role in regulating many body functions. They act as catalysts in nerve response, muscle contraction and the metabolism of nutrients in foods. They regulate electrolyte balance and hormonal production, and they strengthen skeletal structures.
Molybdenum
An essential trace element. It helps regulate iron stores in the body and is a key component of at least three enzymes: xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase and sulfite oxidase. These enzymes are involved with carbohydrate metabolism, fat oxidation and urine metabolism. The average adult has about 9mg of molybdenum concentrated mostly in the liver, kidney, adrenal glands, bones and skin. Molybdenum deficiencies are associated with esophageal cancer, sexual impotency and tooth decay.
Mucous Membranes (Mucosa, Mucous Membrane, Mucus Membranes)
The membranes, such as the mouth, nose, anus, and vagina, that line the cavities and canals of the body which communicate with the air.
Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
Demyelinating disorder of the central nervous system, causing patches of sclerosis (plaques) in the brain and spinal cord, manifested by loss of normal neurological functions, e.g. muscle weakness, loss of vision, and mood alterations.
NAC
N-acetyl-l-cysteine. A sulfur compound that is a precursor of glutathione.
Protein (Proteins)
Compounds composed of hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen present in the body and in foods that form complex combinations of amino acids. Protein is essential for life and is used for growth and repair. Foods that supply the body with protein include animal products, grains, legumes, and vegetables. Proteins from animal sources contain the essential amino acids. Proteins are changed to amino acids in the body.
Saliva (Salivary)
The watery mixture of secretions from the salivary and oral mucous glands that lubricates chewed food and moistens the oral walls.
Selenium
An essential element involved primarily in enzymes that are antioxidants. Three selenium- containing enzymes are antioxidant peroxidases and a fourth selenium-containing enzyme is involved in thyroid hormone production. The prostate contains a selenium-containing protein and semen contains relatively large amounts of selenium. Clinical studies show that selenium is important in lowering the risk of several types of cancers. In combination with Vitamin E, selenium aids the production of antibodies and helps maintain a healthy heart. It also aids in the function of the pancreas, provides elasticity to tissues and helps cells defend themselves against damage from oxidation.
Short-Term Memory (Short Term Memory)
Also known as immediate memory or working memory, this is a phase of memory in which a limited amount of information may be held for several seconds to minutes. In general, up to 7 'chunks' of information are stored for about 20 seconds.
Sodium
An essential mineral that our bodies regulate and conserve. Excess sodium retention increases the fluid volume (edema) and low sodium leads to less fluid and relative dehydration. The adult body averages a total content of over 100 grams of sodium, of which a surprising one-third is in bone. A small amount of sodium does get into cell interiors, but this represents only about ten percent of the body content. The remaining 57 percent or so of the body sodium content is in the fluid immediately surrounding the cells, where it is the major cation (positive ion). The role of sodium in the extracellular fluid is maintaining osmotic equilibrium (the proper difference in ions dissolved in the fluids inside and outside the cell) and extracellular fluid volume. Sodium is also involved in nerve impulse transmission, muscle tone and nutrient transport. All of these functions are interrelated with potassium.
Last updated: May 11, 2008
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