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Parkinson's disease (paralysis agitans, shaking palsy) was first described in 1817. It is now increasingly clear not only what causes Parkinson's, but also how it can be prevented and its relentless progress slowed down.
Incidence; Causes & Development
With no known cause, Parkinson's disease affects about 1% of the population over the age of 60 years in the United States. It is more common among men than women and also seems to be more widespread in northern countries. The incidence of the disease increases with age although aging itself is not believed to be a causative factor. Parkinson's disease is rarely inherited and fewer than 1% of all cases are thought to have a genetic component.
Environmental and Dietary Factors. Parkinson-like symptoms can occur as a result of head injuries, carbon monoxide poisoning or poisoning by pharmaceutical or other drugs. Certain diuretics (reserpine), antipsychotics (chlorpromazine), and heart drugs (verapamil) have all been implicated in causing or worsening Parkinson's disease symptoms as has the "designer drug" MPTP (methylphenyl-tetrahydropyridine). In some cases, drug-induced Parkinson's disease may be halted or reversed if the drug is promptly withdrawn. Naproxen and other NSAIDs may also exacerbate Parkinson's disease.
Recent research carried out in Iceland, which has a very high incidence of Parkinson's disease, has shown that children born during or after a whooping cough (pertussis) epidemic are particularly vulnerable to Parkinson's disease in later life. This finding supports the idea that Parkinson's disease may develop later in life as a result of a neurotoxic event that occurred at an early age.
The main pathological feature of Parkinson's disease is the progressive destruction of dopamine-producing cells in the substantia nigra region of the brain stem. The loss of dopamine production affects the balance between dopamine and acetylcholine in the brain with the result that messages to the muscles become garbled. It is estimated that the characteristic Parkinson's disease symptoms develop once 70% of the dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra have been destroyed.
Treatment & Prevention
At this time there is no medical cure for the condition, but drugs that alleviate the symptoms and slow the progress of the disease are available. L-dopa, the mainstay of current drug therapy, was introduced in 1970 and since then hundreds of research papers have been published on the disease.
Alternative Treatment
Until recently there were few alternative treatments available for Parkinson's disease patients. This is now changing. The finding that Parkinson's disease is almost certainly caused by oxidative stress aggravated by metal toxicity is a major step forward in understanding and eventually conquering the disease.
The fact that antioxidants retard the development and slow the progression of existing Parkinson's disease was demonstrated in 1991 in a pilot study carried out by Dr. Stanley Fahn of Columbia University. The overall conclusion of this research is that one can lower one's risk of developing Parkinson's disease by reducing one's intake of animal fats and sugar, avoiding excessive exposure to metals such as aluminum, iron, manganese, mercury, cadmium and copper, and by ensuring an adequate intake of antioxidants. These preventive measures may also be useful in slowing down the progression of the disease.
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Signs, symptoms & indicators of Parkinson's Disease:
Conditions that suggest Parkinson's Disease:
Risk factors for Parkinson's Disease: | | | | | Addictions |  Cocaine Addiction | Some researchers believe that cocaine could spark the early onset of Parkinson's disease by causing the body to exhaust its supply of dopamine prematurely. |
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Environment / Toxicity |
Heavy Metal Toxicity |
Nutrients |
Antioxidant Requirement| | The question as to what causes the destruction of the dopamine-producing cells has puzzled researchers for years but a consensus is now emerging that Parkinson's disease is caused by oxidative stress and metal toxicity. The idea that oxidative stress, i.e. an excess of free radicals in the body, can cause disease was first brought forward in 1983. Numerous studies have shown that Parkinson's disease victims have low levels of natural antioxidants (glutathione and superoxide dismutase) and high levels of iron in the substantia nigra areas of their brains. It is believed that iron helps catalyze the free radical reactions that destroy the dopamine-producing cells. |
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Supplements and Medications |
(Past) ecstacy use| | Some researchers believe that ecstasy use could lead to early onset of Parkinson's disease by causing the body to exhaust its supply of dopamine prematurely. |
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Symptoms - Mind - General |
 Suspected/possible Parkinson's disease |
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Recommendations and treatments for Parkinson's Disease: | | | | | Amino Acid / Protein |  Cysteine / N-Acetyl-Cysteine (NAC)| | Both cysteine and NAC increase glutathione levels. |
 L-Phenylalanine| | D-phenylalanine (DPA) may be helpful for some individuals with Parkinson’s disease. [Arzneimittelforsch 26: pp.577-9, 1976] |
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Botanical |
Grape Seed Extract (Pycnogenol)| | Flavonoids, and in particular the proanthocyanidins (grape seed and pine bark extracts) should also be excellent candidates as Parkinson's disease preventers and retarders. Proanthocyanidins are water-soluble antioxidants that are stronger than vitamin C and which readily cross into the brain fluid. Clinical trials are, however, still required to support this hypothesis. |
Broad Beans| | Australian researchers have found that broad beans (Vicia faba) are an extremely good source of l-dopa and can, in some cases, actually replace l-dopa. A 100gm serving of broad beans (including the pods) provides about 250mg of l-dopa and in addition a significant amount of proanthocyanidins. The broad beans remain effective even if canned or frozen, but should always be consumed whole as the pod has been found to have the highest concentration of l-dopa. Medication dosage may have to be adjusted if broad beans are consumed on a regular basis. |
Silymarin / Milk Thistle |
Detoxification |
Coffee Enema |
Diet |
Increased Fruit/Vegetable Consumption
Not recommended:
 High/Increased Protein Diet| | The timing of protein intake can markedly increase the effectiveness of l-dopa and thereby lead to reduced dosage requirements. Researchers now recommend that protein intake be kept as low as possible and that protein be included primarily in the evening meal. |
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Drug |
 Conventional Drug Use| | Conventional medical treatment relies heavily on l-dopa (levo-dihydroxy-phenylalanine), a dopamine precursor that can cross the blood-brain barrier and is converted to dopamine in the brain. L-dopa is now rarely used by itself, but rather in combination with carbidopa (Sinemet) or benserazide (Madopar) that protects it from breaking down before it reaches the brain tissue. As l-dopa must compete with other amino acids in crossing both from the gut to the blood stream and from the blood stream to the brain it is usually recommended that it be taken between meals rather than with meals.
Although l-dopa medications can bring significant relief from Parkinson's disease symptoms they become less effective with time. After four or five years of increasing dosages their effect becomes sporadic and unpredictable (the "on-off syndrome") and patients become increasingly helpless and depressed. There is also evidence that the use of l-dopa medications may lead to a deficiency of B-vitamins, especially niacin and vitamin B-6. Most Parkinson's disease experts now recommend that l-dopa therapy be started as late as possible after diagnosis of Parkinson's disease so as to postpone the day when it no longer works and to limit its many serious adverse effects.
Selegiline (Deprenyl, Eldepryl) is another drug used in Parkinson's disease therapy. It works by blocking the breakdown of dopamine in the brain. Recent trials have shown that starting Parkinson's disease patients on selegiline can extend the time period before they need l-dopa by about nine months. Combinations of l-dopa medications and selegiline have also been tried in early stage Parkinson's disease patients, but were found to have no advantage. A recent study concluded that the combination therapy increased mortality by about 50% when compared to Parkinson's disease patients treated with l-dopa medications alone.
Anticholinergenic drugs work by reducing the amount of acetylcholine produced in the brain and thereby redressing the imbalance between dopamine and acetylcholine. They are no longer recommended for older patients as they have serious neuropsychiatric side-effects. |
GHB (Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate)
Not recommended:
NSAIDs |
Hormone |
DHEA| | C.A. Hackethal, M.D. has reported excellent success in treating Parkinson's Disease by use of replacement therapy of DHEA. Apparently the bad side-effects of L-Dopa are avoided, and the Parkinsonian victim is restored to appropriate functioning. |
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Mineral |
Not recommended:
Manganese
Copper |
Nutrient |
TMG (Tri-methyl-glycine)| | The compound 5-adenosylmethionine (SAMe), potentially produced through the demethylation of TMG, has been shown to improve Parkinson's disease. |
CoQ10 (Ubiquinone)| | Other antioxidants such as coenzyme Q10 (ubiquinone) and proanthocyanidins may be equally or more effective than vitamins C and E. This, however, remains to be proven in clinical trials. Coenzyme Q10 is absorbed into brain fluids and is a very powerful antioxidant. |
Phosphytidalserine |
Psychological |
Stress Management| | Stress aggravates Parkinson's disease and relaxation therapy has been found useful in the treatment of the disease. A well thought-out program of rest, exercise and physiotherapy can also significantly ameliorate the symptoms of Parkinson's disease. |
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Vitamins |
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)| | In a Russian trial, 60 patients with Parkinsonism of various causes with pronounced tremor were effectively treated with intramuscular doses of vitamin B6. Single doses were as high as 400mg; the total doses were from 3000 to 6000mg. Changes in laboratory findings (EMG, tremorographic and myotonometric) correlated with the clinical picture. Vitamin B6 is recommended irrespective of the cause of the disease and of the patient's age, and can be given either alone or in combination with anti-Parkinsonian drugs aside from DOPA. High doses of B6 are not recommended, however, for patients with angina or coronary insufficiency. [Sov Med (7): 14- 9, 1979 (in Russian)] |
Vitamin E
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)| | Supplementation with vitamin C and E markedly slows the progression of the disease in its early stages.
Parkinson's disease patients given large doses of oral vitamin C and synthetic vitamin E supplements (3000mg and 3200 IU daily respectively) delayed the progression of their disease to the point where they needed l-dopa 2.5 years later than a group of patients who were not taking supplements. Later research has shown that synthetic vitamin E in itself does not retard the progression of Parkinson's disease. Thus it is likely that it was vitamin C by itself or its combination with vitamin E that was the active component in Dr. Fahn's experiment. This fits with a later finding that vitamin E, a fat-soluble vitamin, does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier nor does it accumulate in the cerebrospinal fluid that bathes the brain. Vitamin C, on the other hand, while not crossing the blood-brain barrier does enter the cerebrospinal fluid and can be found there in concentrations proportional to dietary intake. Inasmuch as vitamin C is a highly effective antioxidant and is particularly adept in quenching hydroxyl radicals (the main culprits in the dopamine-cell destruction), it is becoming increasingly clear that this vitamin may be an excellent protector against Parkinson's disease and can materially help in slowing down the progression of the disease. |
Vitamin B-Complex| | Supplementation with vitamin B-complex may be necessary, especially for patients who take l-dopa medications. |
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Preventive measures against Parkinson's Disease: | | | | | Amino Acid / Protein | Glutamine| | Raising glutathione levels (a potent antioxidant and detoxifier) will provide a protective effect. See also the link between Parkinson's Disease and Glutathione. |
L-Glutathione| | Since the discovery more than a decade ago that Parkinson's patients suffer from a profound deficiency of the powerful brain antioxidant glutathione, medical researchers have been actively exploring techniques to administer this naturally-occurring chemical. It is currently used intravenously. |
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Detoxification |
Heavy Metal Detoxification / Avoidance| | Parkinson's disease is almost certainly caused by oxidative stress aggravated by metal toxicity. People who live in areas where the aluminum content of the drinking water is high have an excessive risk of developing Parkinson's disease. Recent research has linked high aluminum levels in drinking water to acid rain that leaches the aluminum out of the soil and transfers it to the ground water. Other metals are also implicated. |
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Diet |
Sugars Avoidance / Reduction| | People with a high intake of sugar (mono- and disaccharides) increase their risk of developing Parkinson's disease by a factor of three as compared to people with a more moderate intake. |
Plant-Based Nutrition| | Diets high in vitamin C and beta-carotene provide significant protection against Parkinson's disease. American researchers have concluded that a high intake of animal fats is associated with a five-fold increase risk. |
Animal/Saturated Fats Avoidance| | American researchers have concluded that a high intake of animal fats is associated with a five-fold increase in the risk of developing Parkinson's disease. |
Aspartame (Nutrasweet) Avoidance| | Parkinson's disease can be triggered or worsened by ingesting aspartame according to researchers studying its possible adverse effects. |
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Environmental |
Chemical Avoidance| | Occupational exposure to pesticides and herbicides has also been linked to a significantly higher risk of developing Parkinson's disease. |
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Mineral |
Not recommended:
Iron |
Nutrient |
Alpha Lipoic Acid |
Vitamins |
Vitamin A| | Vitamin A works with other antioxidants to provide a protective effect. |
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KEY | | Weak or unproven link | | | Strong or generally accepted link |  | | Proven definite or direct link | | | May do some good | | | Likely to help | | | Highly recommended | | | Reasonably likely to cause problems |
GLOSSARY
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter widely distributed in body tissues with a primary function of mediating synaptic activity of the nervous system and skeletal muscles.
Amino Acid (Amino Acids)
An organic acid containing nitrogen chemical building blocks that aid in the production of protein in the body. Eight of the twenty-two known amino acids are considered "essential," and must be obtained from dietary sources because the body can not synthesize them.
Antioxidant (Antioxidants)
A chemical compound that slows or prevents oxygen from reacting with other compounds. Some antioxidants have been shown to have cancer-protecting potential because they neutralize free radicals. Examples include vitamins C and E, beta carotene, the minerals selenium and germanium, superoxide dismutase (SOD), coenzyme Q10, catalase, and some amino acids.
Aspartame
A low-calorie sweetener used in a variety of foods and drinks and as a tabletop sweetener. It is about 200 times sweeter than sugar and is commonly known by names such as NutraSweet, Equal, Spoonful or Equal-Measure.
Bioflavonoid (Bioflavonoids, Flavonoid, Flavonoids)
Vitamin P. Any of a group of colored flavones (crystalline compounds) found next to the peel in many fruits. Essential for the stability and absorption of ascorbic acid.
Copper
An essential mineral that is a component of several important enzymes in the body and is essential to good health. Copper is found in all body tissues. Copper deficiency leads to a variety of abnormalities, including anemia, skeletal defects, degeneration of the nervous system, reproductive failure, pronounced cardiovascular lesions, elevated blood cholesterol, impaired immunity and defects in the pigmentation and structure of hair. Copper is involved in iron incorporation into hemoglobin. It is also involved with vitamin C in the formation of collagen and the proper functioning in central nervous system. More than a dozen enzymes have been found to contain copper. The best studied are superoxide dismutase (SOD), cytochrome C oxidase, catalase, dopamine hydroxylase, uricase, tryptophan dioxygenase, lecithinase and other monoamine and diamine oxidases.
Cysteine
A nonessential amino acid but may be essential for individuals with certain diseases or nutritional concerns. Cysteine is a sulfur-bearing amino acid with antioxidant properties. It is important for keratin synthesis, a protein found in skin, hair and nails and is a component of coenzyme A and glutathione.
Dementia (Senile Dementia)
An acquired progressive impairment of intellectual function. Marked compromise exists in at least three of the following mental activity spheres: memory, language, personality, visuospatial skills, and cognition (i.e. abstraction and calculation).
DHEA (DHEA-S)
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is a steroid produced by the adrenal glands and is the most abundant one found in humans. DHEA may be transformed into testosterone, estrogen or other steroids. It is found in the body as DHEA or in the sulfated form known as DHEA-S. One form is converted into the other as needed.
Dopamine
A neurohormone; precursor to norepinephrine which acts as a stimulant to the nervous system. Carries signals between neurons and controls feelings of satisfaction, arousal, reward and mood.
Free Radical (Free Radicals)
A free radical is an atom or group of atoms that has at least one unpaired electron. Because another element can easily pick up this free electron and cause a chemical reaction, these free radicals can effect dramatic and destructive changes in the body. Free radicals are activated in heated and rancid oils and by radiation in the atmosphere, among other things.
Glutathione
A natural sulfur-bearing peptide formed from the linking of three amino acids: glutamic acid, cysteine and glycine. Glutathione acts as an antioxidant and detoxicant and is involved with the selenium-containing enzyme glutathione peroxidase. Glutathione is also involved in amino acid transport across cell membranes and is a powerful free radical scavenger and antioxidant that removes unwanted substances from the body.
Gram (gm, gms, Gramme, Grammes, Grams)
A metric unit of weight, there being approximately 28 grams in one ounce.
Iron
An essential mineral. Prevents anemia: as a constituent of hemoglobin, transports oxygen throughout the body. Virtually all of the oxygen used by cells in the life process are brought to the cells by the hemoglobin of red blood cells. Iron is a small but most vital, component of the hemoglobin in 20,000 billion red blood cells, of which 115 million are formed every minute. Heme iron (from meat) is absorbed 10 times more readily than the ferrous or ferric form.
IU (mIU, uIU)
International Unit: An arbitrarily defined but agreed upon unit that depends on what is being measured.
mIU: 0.001 or one thousandth of an IU.
uIU: 0.000001 or one millionth of an IU.
Liver (Hepatic)
The largest and one of the most complex organs of the body, the liver is responsible for much of the metabolism of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. It is the site of much of the body's detoxification. It is connected very closely with digestion and the regulation of blood sugar, among many other functions. Found behind the ribs on the right side of the abdomen, it has many important functions such as removing harmful material from the blood, making enzymes and bile that help digest food, and converting food into substances needed for life and growth. Hepatic: Pertaining to the liver.
Manganese
An essential mineral found in trace amounts in tissues of the body. Adults normally contain an average of 10 to 20mg of manganese in their bodies, most of which is contained in bone, the liver and the kidneys. Manganese is essential to several critical enzymes necessary for energy production, bone and blood formation, nerve function and protein metabolism. It is involved in the metabolism of fats and glucose, the production of cholesterol and it allows the body to use thiamine and Vitamin E. It is also involved in the building and degrading of proteins and nucleic acid, biogenic amine metabolism, which involves the transmitting of nerve impulses.
Milligram (mg, Milligrams)
0.001 or a thousandth of a gram.
Niacin (B3, B-3, Niacinamide, Vitamin B3)
A coenzyme B-complex vitamin that assists in the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Essential for the health of the skin, nerves, tongue and digestive system. It is found in every cell of the body and is necessary for energy production. Niacin is also needed for DNA formation.
NSAID (NSAIDs)
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug.
Parkinson's Disease (Parkinson's)
A chronic, slowly-progressing disease of the nervous system characterized clinically by the combination of tremor, rigidity, extreme slowness of movement, and stooped posture. It is characterized pathologically by loss of dopamine in the substantia nigra.
Precursor (Precursors)
A biochemical substance, such as an intermediate compound in a chain of enzymatic reactions, from which a more stable or definitive product is formed.
Proanthocyanidin (Proanthocyanidins)
Also called procyanidin, it is a powerful antioxidant that chemically belongs to the class of bioflavonoids. Pycnogenol from grape seed and pine bark extracts is an example. Berries, such as hawthorn berries, cherries, blueberries, and blackberries and, to a lesser extent, red wine, are natural sources.
Protein (Proteins)
Compounds composed of hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen present in the body and in foods that form complex combinations of amino acids. Protein is essential for life and is used for growth and repair. Foods that supply the body with protein include animal products, grains, legumes, and vegetables. Proteins from animal sources contain the essential amino acids. Proteins are changed to amino acids in the body.
Superoxide Dismutase (SOD)
An antioxidant enzyme which helps protect cells from free-radical damage.
Syndrome
A medical condition characterized by a collection of related symptoms (what the patient feels) and signs (what a doctor can observe or measure).
Tri-Methyl-Glycine (DMG, TMG)
After supplying a methyl group, TMG becomes di-methyl-glycine. DMG, a natural component of animal and plant metabolism, positively influences the immune response in laboratory animals and humans and boosts physical and mental performance.
Vitamin A
A fat-soluble vitamin essential to one's health. Plays an important part in the growth and repair of body tissue, protects epithelial tissue, helps maintain the skin and is necessary for night vision. It is also necessary for normal growth and formation of bones and teeth. For Vitamin A only, 1mg translates to 833 IU.
Vitamin B6 (B6, B-6)
Influences many body functions including regulating blood glucose levels, manufacturing hemoglobin and aiding the utilization of protein, carbohydrates and fats. It also aids in the function of the nervous system.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
A water-soluble antioxidant vitamin essential to the body's health. When bound to other nutrients, for example calcium, it would be referred to as "calcium ascorbate". As an antioxidant, it inhibits the formation of nitrosamines (a suspected carcinogen). Vitamin C is important for maintenance of bones, teeth, collagen and blood vessels (capillaries), enhances iron absorption and red blood cell formation, helps in the utilization of carbohydrates and synthesis of fats and proteins, aids in fighting bacterial infections, and interacts with other nutrients. It is present in citrus fruits, tomatoes, berries, potatoes and fresh, green leafy vegetables.
Vitamin E
An essential fat-soluble vitamin. As an antioxidant, helps protect cell membranes, lipoproteins, fats and vitamin A from destructive oxidation. It helps protect red blood cells and is important for the proper function of nerves and muscles. For Vitamin E only, 1mg translates to 1 IU.
Last updated: May 11, 2008
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