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"The silent crippler", as osteoporosis is often called, sneaks up on its victims and, without any pain, gradually causes bones to become more porous and fragile. One day you grab your coat and your wrist snaps; or a friend hugs you and cracks your rib; or you step off a curb and break your hip...
Osteopenia refers to decreased calcification or density of bone. Having osteopenia places a person at risk for developing osteoporosis, the more serious condition. Bone density is described in relationship to what it should be in young people; it is expressed as a "standard deviation" from the mean (average) bone density in a 35-year-old. Within 1 standard deviation of the mean in either direction is considered normal. A bone density within the range of 1 to 2.5 standard deviations below the mean is defined as osteopenia, and greater than 2.5 standard deviations below the mean is osteoporosis.
Put more simply, osteoporosis is defined as having a bone density of more than 25% below the average of young adults of the same sex and race; a bone density between 10 to 25% below average levels is termed osteopenia and reflects a milder degree of bone loss than osteoporosis.
Incidence
Osteoporosis is the chronic loss of bone mass and strength which afflicts over 8 million Americans - one and a half million are subjected to life threatening fractures every year. Of those who endure hip fractures, some 20% die from complications within a year; 60% become dependent upon constant help in their daily lives.
Treatment & Prevention
Bone mass does not increase beyond a "peak density" after age 35. The loss of bone mass can be slowed and lost bone mass regained somewhat with the right treatments. Building and maintaining bone early in life (up until the 40s) will delay or prevent the appearance of bone loss problems.
Diet, exercise and lifestyle are key factors in preventing osteoporosis from childhood.
Calcium. The NOS recommends daily intakes of calcium which are higher than the RDA. Milk and dairy products are the best sources of calcium, and low-fat varieties generally contain as much or more. Although diet is the best way to ensure adequate calcium intake, supplements may be needed by:- women who are pregnant, breastfeeding or over 45
- teenage girls who miss meals or who cut out calcium-rich foods in the belief they are 'fattening'
- strict vegans
- people with lactose intolerance, coeliac disease or malabsorption problems.
When advising on calcium supplements, pharmacists should take into account a person's dietary intake so as not to exceed 2gm daily. They need to be aware how much elemental calcium a supplement contains, as with some preparations it may be necessary to take six to eight tablets a day to achieve the required amount.
Vitamin D. Vitamin D helps the body to absorb calcium and regulates bone resorption. The best natural sources are sunlight and oily fish. Production of vitamin D by the action of sunlight on the skin decreases with age, so elderly people who are unable to get out much may need calcium and vitamin D supplements. Again, pharmacists need to assess a person's dietary intake before recommending supplements. The therapeutic window recommended by the NOS is 400-800 IU per day, which should not be exceeded.
Magnesium. Recent research suggests that magnesium might also be important, as women with low dietary intakes have lower bone mineral densities.
Exercise. Exercise is also beneficial throughout life. Studies have shown that weight-bearing exercise for about 30 minutes two or three times a week strengthens the bones and there is evidence that lack of exercise significantly increases the rate of bone loss. If elderly people can only take moderate exercise, this is still useful in improving balance and co-ordination.
Joan Bassey, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, UK, has reviewed various exercise programmes and their effects on bone mineral density [Osteoporosis Review 1996; 4:1; pp.3-4)]. She recommends high-impact activity such as jogging or jumping, done in brief bouts to minimise the risk of over-use injury.
Brisk walking can strengthen the hip as well as the legs. Swimming is a low-impact activity because of the cushioning effect of the water, so it does not increase bone density, although it helps to strengthen the muscles after a fracture. People who have had a fracture should start with gentle exercise as soon as the fracture has healed, gradually building up to three sessions a week.
Lifestyle measures. Other lifestyle advice includes giving up smoking and limiting alcohol intake to the recommended safe amounts (28 units a week for men and 21 for women). Something to consider in elderly people is whether medication is likely to cause drowsiness or dizziness which might make them more prone to falls.
Drug treatment. For individuals at high risk of osteoporosis, lifestyle measures are not enough and drug treatment is indicated. Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) is still considered to be the best way to prevent osteoporosis in post-menopausal women. Estrogen protects bone against the resorbing actions of the parathyroid hormone. Studies have shown women who use HRT for at least five years, starting soon after the menopause, reduce the risk of fracture by about 60%.
But not all women need HRT. A bone scan can estimate the degree of risk by comparing mineral density with the average measurements for people in the same age group.
The bisphosphonate etidronate has recently been licensed for the prevention of all common forms of osteoporosis in men and women, including corticosteroid-induced disease, so this is now another option for women unable to take HRT.
There is no consensus as to when preventive treatment should start in people taking corticosteroids, and consultants may wish to do a bone scan before deciding. More than 7.5mg a day of prednisolone daily for more than six months is generally considered as 'high-dose, long-term' treatment.
To prevent further bone loss, women under 65 are likely to be prescribed HRT. Women over 65 can still take it but may prefer alternatives because of problems such as bleeding, breast tenderness and weight gain. Women with an intact uterus should receive estrogen plus progestogen to avoid the slightly increased risk of uterine cancer associated with long-term estrogen use.
Women who are at least one year post-menopause may prefer combined preparations which are taken continuously. Tibolone, which is period-free, was recently licensed for prevention of post-menopausal osteoporosis.
Women for whom HRT might not be suitable include those with a history of thrombosis, high blood pressure, diabetes, migraine, a history of breast cancer or breast cancer in close family, and heavy smokers.
In risk-benefit terms, HRT is still considered to be the best treatment for post-menopausal osteoporosis.
Bisphosphonates. The bisphosphonates disodium etidronate and alendronate sodium reduce bone resorption by inhibiting the osteoclasts. Trials have shown that bisphosphonates improve bone mass over two to three years. A 50% decrease in spinal fractures is similar to that seen with HRT and calcitonin. A study of cyclical etidronate showed up to 88% reduction in vertebral fractures in the second and third year of treatment of post-menopausal women.
Bisphosphonates can be used by women ten to 15 years after the menopause, although intervention is best during the initial rapid phase of bone loss.
Didronel PMO is taken as a 90-day cycle of etidronate for two weeks followed by a calcium supplement for 76 days, which aids mineralisation of newly-formed bone. Etidronate is given in cycles to prevent impairment of bone mineralisation, although studies have shown it is well tolerated and effective for up to seven years.
Previously approved only for established vertebral osteoporosis, Didronel PMO is licensed for the treatment of osteoporosis at all sites, including the hip. It is also the only treatment licensed specifically for corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis.
Etidronate must be taken two hours before or two hours after food, with water or fruit juice. Milk, other calcium-containing products and iron supplements inhibit absorption. It may cause nausea, as might the Cacit supplement, and diarrhoea.
Alendronate is licensed for the treatment of post-menopausal osteoporosis, at all sites, in post-menopausal women. It is taken continuously on a daily basis. It has been associated with severe oesophageal irritation and should be used with care in people prone to ulcers or heartburn. The tablets should be swallowed whole with a glass of water 30 minutes before breakfast, with the patient standing or sitting upright for at least 30 minutes afterwards.
Calcium and vitamin D. Studies in the elderly have shown that calcium supplements can reduce the risk of a vertebral fracture by 20%, and that calcium and vitamin D supplements may reduce the risk of hip fracture by 30-40%. Calcium supplementation around the menopause has some benefit on bone density, although not as much as estrogen replacement.
Calcium can irritate the gastro-intestinal mucosa and should be used with care in patients with ulceration. It can accentuate the effects of digoxin and other cardiac glycosides.
Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) increase bone mass and reduce fracture incidence.
Calcitriol is a hydroxylated vitamin D derivative which is licensed for post-menopausal osteoporosis. It may cause hypercalcaemia and hypercalciuria and should not be taken at the same time as other vitamin D supplements.
Calcitonin, released by the thyroid, briefly inhibits bone resorption by osteoclasts. It is involved with parathyroid hormone in the maintenance of calcium balance. Calcitonin increases bone mineral density, particularly in the spine, and there is evidence it reduces hip and vertebral fracture rates. It also reduces the pain of spinal crush fractures. It is given by injection, but an oral form is under clinical trial. Prolonged use of pork calcitonin can lead to the production of neutralising antibodies.
Salcatonin is a synthetic form of calcitonin, licensed for established post-menopausal osteoporosis. Given by injection, it is regarded as most suitable for patients who cannot take HRT or bisphosphonates. Clinical trials have shown an increase in bone density after two years, a 30% reduction in new fractures and 60% in crush fractures. It is believed to inhibit the calcium pump that transports calcium out of bone cells into the extracellular space. Patients should also take 600mg elemental calcium and 400 units of vitamin D daily.
Adverse reactions to calcitonins include nausea, vomiting, flushing and tingling hands.
Anabolic steroids. Nandrolone decanoate is restricted to very frail, elderly patients with severe osteoporosis or who have a very rapid rate of bone loss. It stimulates new bone formation, inhibits resorption, enhances calcium absorption and relieves pain. Disadvantages are androgenic effects such as hair growth, acne and voice lowering, as well as nausea, dizziness, rashes, headache, backache and nervousness.
Testosterone. In men, testosterone may be used to increase bone density in hypogonadal osteoporosis. There is also evidence testosterone injection may be effective for some men with normal natural levels.
Treatment choice
In a review of drug treatments [Ann Rheum Diseases 1996;55:pp.700-714], Dr Sanjeev Patel, Department of Rheumatology, St George's Hospital, London, says that long-term estrogens are still the mainstay of treatment but the risks of breast cancer versus the cardiovascular and skeletal benefits have to be assessed in each individual. When HRT is inappropriate or unacceptable, bisphosphonates should probably be considered next. [Since this article, etidronate has become the only option for corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis].
Calcium supplementation, or an increase in dietary intake if deficient, irrespective of what agent is used, is also of benefit, says Dr Patel.
Calcitriol is best considered as a third-line agent and reserved for specialist use, possibly in patients with renal impairment where vitamin D may not be effective or where there is intolerance to bisphosphonates, says Dr Patel. Calcitonin could also be used as a third-line agent under specialist supervision.
Combination treatment, for example, with oestrogens, bisphosphonates and calcium, may be 'an attractive option' in younger patients with higher bone turnover.
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Signs, symptoms & indicators of Osteoporosis - Osteopenia:
Conditions that suggest Osteoporosis - Osteopenia: | | | | | Lab Values - Scans |  Bone loss continuing or bone loss being controlled or bone loss advanced / rapid (confirmed)
Counter-indicators:
 Normal bone density |
Musculo-Skeletal |
 Rheumatoid Arthritis |
Pain |
 Low Back Pain | Back pain is an early sign of bone loss. |
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Skin-Hair-Nails |
Premature Hair Graying| | Is premature graying of hair associated with other features of accelerated aging - faster bone loss, for example? A study of 293 postmenopausal women has confirmed that early hair graying and greater bone loss tend to occur together. The lower bone density was especially apparent in the hip region.
The authors found that when they adjusted bone mineral density for age and weight, there was a clear connection between the age of onset of hair graying and bone density. "Age- and weight-adjusted bone mineral density (BMD) was significantly lower in those with the majority of their hair graying during their thirties compared with those in whom it occurred in their forties." Premature hair graying before the age of 40 was associated with a lower BMD at most skeletal sites. Also, women who started graying extremely early in life, already in their twenties, had lower bone density than those who started graying in their thirties. [J Clin Endo Metab 1997; 82: pp.3580-3]
In an earlier report, doctors in Maine showed that people with gray hair by age 40 are 4.4 times more likely to suffer from osteoporosis. [J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 79: pp.854-7] |
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Risk factors for Osteoporosis - Osteopenia: | | | | | Addictions | Cigarette Smoke Damage| | The evidence is overwhelming: smoking boosts bone loss and is therefore a risk factor for osteoporosis and for bone fractures in general. |
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Aging |
Premature/Signs of Aging |
Autoimmune |
Gluten Sensitivity / Celiac Disease| | A study concluded that reduced mineralization occurs even in asymptomatic celiac patients, and that early diagnosis and treatment can prevent bone demineralization. [Am J Gastroenterol 1994;89: pp.2130-4] |
Ulcerative Colitis| | Scientists believe osteoporosis may occur when the immune system triggers inflammation in other parts of the body. These problems are usually mild and go away when the colitis is treated. |
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Cell Salts |
Calc Phos Cell Salt Need |
Diet |
Excess Protein Consumption
Consequences of Poor Diet| | Excess salt and sugar, found in junk foods, leach calcium from the bones into the urine. |
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Digestion |
Atrophic Gastritis| | Stomach acid is required to enhance the absorption of minerals such as calcium. Reduced calcium absorption encourages bone loss. |
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Environment / Toxicity |
Fluoride Toxicity| | Fluorides destroy collagen, which is the glue that adds strength to the bones. |
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Habits |
Aerobic Exercise Need| | A sedentary lifestyle increases the risk of suffering from osteoporosis later in life. Exercise strengthens bones - inactivity encourages the body not to rebuild unused resources. |
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Hormones |
Low Male Testosterone Level| | Some 30% of men with spinal osteoporosis have long-standing testosterone deficiency, and one-third of men with testosterone deficiency have subnormal bone density that puts them at risk of fractures. |
Hyperparathyroidism| | Patients may have thinning of the bones without symptoms, but with risk of fractures. |
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Lab Values |
Elevated Homocysteine Levels| | Elevated homocysteine levels disrupt collagen-forming processes in the body and raise the likelihood of developing osteoporosis. |
Elevated Cortisol Levels| | If a woman is not ovulating she may have lower estrogen and progesterone levels. Low estrogen levels can increase the activity of osteoclasts (bone breakdown cells) while low progesterone has been shown to increase PMS symptoms and slow bone deposition. Also, to provide the extra calcium needed when faced with intense stress situation, cortisol can directly stimulate bone breakdown cells. Unchecked over a long period of time, high cortisol levels can cause you to lose bone faster than you can rebuild it. |
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Metabolic |
Acidosis| | Acidic diets (high in protein and refined food) will cause bone calcium leaching in order to maintain your blood pH balance. Chronic leeching of calcium from the bones increases the likelihood of osteoporosis. [Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2001: 73, pp.118-122, Lancet 1968:1, pp.958-959] |
Anorexia / Starvation Tendency |
Nutrients |
Manganese Requirement| | Individuals with osteoporosis sometimes have low blood levels of manganese. [Raloff J. Reasons for boning up on manganese. Science Sep 1986, 199 [review]] |
General Mineral Requirement
Vitamin A Requirement
Vitamin B12 Requirement| | Researchers at the University of California devised a study to determine if low levels of vitamin B-12 might be associated with bone loss in older women. Results showed that women with the lowest levels of B-12 had a significantly higher risk of bone loss and fractures compared to women with the highest levels. The researchers also noted that for some women, B-12 supplements may help slow the rate of bone loss. |
Increased Folic Acid Requirement| | Folate (folic acid) and the B-vitamins involved in homocysteine conversion (such as B12 and B6) may be beneficial in reducing the risk of osteoporosis because high levels of homocysteine are implicated in chronic diseases such as osteoporosis. |
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Supplements and Medications |
Counter-indicators:
 (Discontinued) calcium supplementation |
Symptoms - Environment |
Limited lifetime sun exposure| | A lack of natural vitamin D (obtained through exposure to sunlight) increases the risk of getting osteoporosis later in life. |
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Symptoms - Food - Beverages |
(Low/high) caffeinated soda consumption| | Regular consumption of caffeinated carbonated beverages has been associated with increased risk of bone fracture both earlier and later in life, yet the contributions of the individual components of these beverages to calcium loss is unclear. The per capita consumption of carbonated beverages has risen dramatically, making them the preferred beverage of women 20-40 years old, many of whom already have an inadequate daily intake of calcium.
The effect of caffeinated and noncaffeinated beverages on urinary calcium excretion was measured in a group of 30 women with an average age of 31 years. The subjects habitually drank from two to seven 12-ounce cans of carbonated beverages daily; 27 drank predominantly colas.
Though the caffeine in the drinks was primarily responsible for excess calcium excretion, previous studies of the effect of caffeine have shown a compensatory drop in calcium excretion over the 24-hour period following ingestion. The fact that the small calcium loss from carbonated beverages was offset by reduced excretion later in the day, and the habituation of the subjects to frequent consumption, lead the authors to conclude that the main cause of calcium loss from carbonated beverages was their lack of nutrients needed for bone health. [Heaney, Rafferty; Am. J of Clin. Nutr., August 2001] |
(High/low) non-caffeine soda consumption| | Osteoporosis can be caused by excess phosphorus intake through drinking too many sodas, particularly Colas. To balance this phosphorus, the body must draw calcium from the bones. |
(High/low) sugared soda consumption
(High) coffee consumption| | Drinking too much coffee increases risk of osteoporosis. A study of 84,484 patients showed a correlation between bone fractures and heavy coffee consumption. |
High/low/moderate alcohol consumption| | Alcohol interferes with the body's absorption of calcium. |
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Symptoms - Food - General |
Long-term/short-term low-carb dieting or discontinued low-carb diet| | The concern with bone health arises from the fact that muscle ("meat") protein has a high sulphur content. When people eat too much of this protein, the sulphur forms acid within our bodies which must somehow be neutralized to maintain proper internal pH balance. One way our body can buffer the sulphuric acid load caused by the meat is with calcium borrowed from our bones. People on high meat diets can lose so much calcium in the urine that it can actually solidify into kidney stones. [Journal of Pediatrics 117 (1990): p.743] Over time, high animal protein intakes may leach enough calcium from the bones to increase one's risk of osteoporosis. People may be literally peeing their bones into the toilet.
In the Harvard Nurse’s study, which followed over 85,000 nurses for a dozen years, found that those who ate more animal protein had a significantly increased risk of forearm fracture. While plant-based (vegan) proteins did not show a deleterious effect, women eating just a serving of red meat a day seemed to have significantly increased fracture risk. [American Journal Epidemiology 143 (1996): p.472] Other studies have linked meat consumption to hip fracture risk as well. [American Journal of Clinical Nutr. 73 (2001): p.118]
In 2002, researchers from the Universities of Chicago and Texas published a study that put people on the Atkins Diet and measured 1) how acidic their urine got and 2) just how much calcium they were urinating out. They reported that the Atkins Diet resulted in a "striking increase in net acid excretion." After just two weeks on the Atkins Diet, the subjects were already losing 258mg of calcium in their urine every day. They concluded that the Atkins Diet "provides an exaggerated acid load, increasing risks for renal calculi [kidney stone] formation and bone loss." [American Journal of Kidney Diseases 40 (2002): p.265] In addition, the Atkins Diet is actually deficient in calcium in the first place. |
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Symptoms - Food - Intake |
(High) dairy product consumption| | Excess consumption of dairy products is implicated in osteoporosis. This is due to their high animal fat content, and the lack of CLA in modern dairy products. |
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Symptoms - Head - Mouth/Oral |
Loose teeth| | Several studies show that people with loose or weak teeth are at increased risk for developing osteoporosis.
[J Bone Miner Res. 1993 (Dec); 8 (Suppl 2): pp.S443-S606]
[J Am Dent Assoc. 1993; 124: pp.49-56]
[J Bone Miner Res. 1994; 9 (Suppl 1): p.S211]
[Lancet Editorial 1995 (April 8); 345: pp.876] |
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Osteoporosis - Osteopenia suggests the following may be present:
Recommendations and treatments for Osteoporosis - Osteopenia: | | | | | Diet |  Dairy Products Avoidance| | Dairy product consumption is not an appropriate way to reduce bone loss, as it will ultimately accelerate bone loss. However, this fact is ignored by marketing experts in the milk industry who make certain that women aged 35 and over are targeted consumers for milk and dairy products.
Harvard University's landmark Nurses' Health Study, which followed 78,000 women over a 12-year period, found that the women who consumed the most calcium from dairy foods broke more bones than those who rarely drank milk. Summarizing this study, the Lunar Osteoporosis Update (November 1997) explained: "This increased risk of hip fracture was associated with dairy calcium. If this were any agent other than milk, which has been so aggressively marketed by dairy interests, it undoubtedly would be considered a major risk factor."
A study published in the January, 2001 edition of the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition examined the diets of 1,035 women, particularly focusing on the protein intake from animal and vegetable products. Deborah Sellmeyer, M.D., found that animal protein increases bone loss. In her study, women with a high animal-to-vegetable protein ratio experienced an increased rate of femoral neck bone loss. A high animal-to-vegetable protein ratio was also associated with an increased risk of hip fracture. Dr. Sellmeyer states: "Sulfur-containing amino acids in protein-containing foods are metabolized to sulfuric acid. Animal foods provide predominantly acid precursors. Acidosis stimulates osteoclastic activity and inhibits osteoblast activity."
Milk has been called "liquid meat". The average American eats five ounces of animal protein each day in the form of red meat and chicken, at the same time consuming nearly six times that amount (29.2 ounces) per day of milk and dairy products. How ironic it is that the dairy industry continues to promote the cause of bone disease as the cure!
Many foods naturally contain an abundance of calcium. One must wonder why Asians traditionally did not get bone-crippling osteoporosis... that is, until they adopted the "American Diet", a diet of milk and dairy products. |
Plant-Based Nutrition| | Reduce animal protein consumption. For a variety of reasons, animal protein causes severe bone deterioration.
A study published in the January, 2001 edition of the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition examined the diets of 1,035 women, particularly focusing on the protein intake from animal and vegetable products. Deborah Sellmeyer, M.D., found that animal protein increases bone loss. In her study, women with a high animal-to-vegetable protein ratio experienced an increased rate of femoral neck bone loss. A high animal-to-vegetable protein ratio was also associated with an increased risk of hip fracture. Dr. Sellmeyer states: "Sulfur-containing amino acids in protein-containing foods are metabolized to sulfuric acid. Animal foods provide predominantly acid precursors. Acidosis stimulates osteoclastic activity and inhibits osteoblast activity."
A 1994 report in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition showed that when volunteers are switched from a typical American diet to a diet eliminating animal proteins, calcium losses were reduced to less than half of baseline values. [Remer T, Manz F. Estimation of the renal net acid excretion by adults consuming diets containing variable amounts of protein. Am Clin Nutr 1994;59:1356-61] |
Sugars Avoidance / Reduction| | Avoiding factors that encourage bone loss can be as just as important as calcium intake. Diets high in refined sugar, protein, salt, caffeine, and phosphorous contained in soft drinks, all promote calcium excretion in urine. |
Reduced Protein Diet| | After looking at 34 published studies in 16 countries, researchers at Yale University found that countries with the highest rates of osteoporosis including the United States, Sweden, and Finland are those in which people consume the most meat, milk, and other animal foods. They also found that African Americans, who consume on average more than 1,000mg of calcium per day, are nine times more likely to experience hip fractures than are South African blacks, whose daily calcium intake is only 196mg. On a nation-by-nation basis, people who consume the most calcium have the weakest bones and the highest rates of osteoporosis. Only in those places where calcium and protein are eaten in relatively high quantities does a deficiency of bone calcium exist, due to an excess of animal protein. The association between the intake of animal protein
and fracture rates appears to be as strong as the association between cigarette smoking and lung cancer. |
 Caffeine/Coffee Avoidance| | A study of 84,484 patients showed a correlation between bone fractures and heavy coffee consumption. |
Increased Fruit/Vegetable Consumption| | Studies suggest that eating just one serving of dark leafy greens or broccoli each day can cut your risk of hip fracture in half. A diet low in green leafy vegetables can be low in vitamin K. Vegetarians have on average greater bone mass than meat eaters. |
Soy Isoflavones (genistein, daidzein)| | Higher intake of dietary phytoestrogens (isoflavones) was associated with higher lumbar spine and hip bone mineral densities in a study of 357 postmenopausal southern Chinese women. [J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86(11): pp.5217-5221]
A one-month of treatment with a soy isoflavone extract reduced the excretion of bone resorption markers, in a placebo-controlled study of 23 healthy perimenopausal women. [J Am Coll Nutr 2002;21(2): pp.97-102]
It should be noted, however, that this benefit has not been seen in other studies. It seems that the best chance of receiving any benefit by this means is if you are a Japanese premenopausal woman. The closer you are to menopause, the less likely to be benefitted. [Am J Epidemiol 2002;155(8): pp.746-754] |
 Alcohol Avoidance| | Alcohol is toxic to the cells that form bones and inhibits the absorption of calcium. |
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Drug |
Conventional Drug Avoidance| | Prescription drugs can increase bone loss. These include cortisone, blood thinners, antacids containing aluminum, chemotherapy, lithium, and certain antibiotics. |
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Environmental |
Sunlight Exposure| | Habits to curtail include heavy smoking, excess alcohol consumption, and limited sunshine exposure or vitamin D intake. |
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Habits |
Aerobic Exercise| | Physical activity may help reduce fracture risk by enhancing bone strength and improving bone quality. Exercise strengthens bones. |
Tobacco Avoidance| | Studies have shown that women who smoke one pack of cigarettes per day have on average 5-10% less bone density at menopause than do nonsmokers. |
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Homeopathy |
Calcarea phosphoricum Cell Salt |
Hormone |
Natural Progesterone| | Estrogen and progesterone are known to provide benefit. The natural forms are best to use for many reasons. When appropriate, they should be used in combination. Estrogens decrease bone resorption, but also decrease bone formation, with an overall effect of reducing loss without substantially increasing bone mass. In contrast, natural progesterone stimulates new bone tissue growth. A three year study of 63 post-menopausal women using progesterone cream for osteoporosis found an average of 7-8% bone mass density increase the first year, 4-5% the second year and 3-4% the third year. |
Estrogen Replacement| | Within 5 years of the initial onset of menopause, there is an accelerated rate of loss of bone, particularly from the spine. During this period of time, estrogen replacement is somewhat effective in preventing bone breakdown, but progesterone is needed for creating new bone. Most doctors agree that estrogen does reduce fractures (at several fracture sites) by halting the reduction in bone density. More recent studies have shown that women who start using estrogen in their 70s still have a benefit in their 80s, and that maybe half of the dose of estrogen will do the same job. Estrogens decrease bone resorption, but also decrease bone formation, with an overall effect of reducing loss without substantially increasing bone mass. |
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Lab Tests/Rule-Outs |
Bone Density Scan| | A bone density scan can indicate what your current bone mineral density is. Repeated scans (a year or two apart) can tell if you are gaining, losing or just maintaining bone.
A new urine test utilizes the two most specific markers of bone resorption - the collagen crosslinks pyridinium/pyridinoline (PYD) and deoxypyridinium/deoxypyridinoline (DPYD or DPD) - to identify elevated levels of bone loss before excessive damage occurs. This profile enables regular testing of women for resorption rates, allowing treatment intervention at its most effective - before bone loss has occurred. It also allows easy and rapid monitoring of treatment effectiveness. As valuable as bone scan results can be in the definitive diagnosis of osteoporosis, the evaluation cannot be performed often enough for patients who are losing bone at a fast rate.
In premenopausal women, estrogen produced in the body maintains bone density. Following the onset of menopause, bone loss increases each year and can result in a total loss of 25-30% of bone density in the first five to ten years after menopause. Your doctor can help you decide when and if you need a bone density test. |
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Mineral |
Calcium| | As you age, the need for absorbable calcium, in conjunction with other essential minerals and vitamins, can be increased.
One study found that a supplement containing calcium, manganese, zinc and copper prevented bone loss in postmenopausal women, whereas calcium alone was ineffective. Calcium supplements for osteoporosis should contain other minerals as well, or the form of calcium used should have been proven to be of benefit.
Intake of supplemental calcium (1000mg per day or more) and vitamin D was associated with reduced tooth loss (due to bone loss) over a five year period in a study of 145 healthy subjects aged 65 years and older who completed a 3-year trial of the effect of calcium and vitamin D supplementation on bone loss from the hip, as well as a 2-year follow-up study after discontinuation of the study supplements. [Am J Med 2001;111(6): pp.452-6]
There are products using compounds of calcium which have been proven to reverse osteoporosis. One such is AdvaCAL. |
Magnesium| | You can reverse bone loss and regain bone mass with calcium, magnesium, vitamin D, and vitamin K. Minimum doses should be in the following ranges: calcium (1200mg), magnesium (400-800mg) vitamin D (400 IU - consider supplementing in the winter months in females), and vitamin K (80mcg). Calcium comes in many forms, so use those which are more absorbable such as hydroxyapatite, citrate, gluconate, and others. Some special preparations have been shown to increase bone density without the use of any other nutrients. |
Boron
Potassium| | Moderate potassium supplementation improves calcium balance in post-menopausal women. [Sebastian A, Harris ST, et al., Improved mineral balance and skeletal metabolism in post-menopausal women treated with potassium bicarbonate. N Engl J Med 330: pp.1776-81, 1994] |
Salt Intake Reduction |
Vitamins |
Vitamin D |
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Preventive measures against Osteoporosis - Osteopenia: | | | | | Vitamins | Vitamin K| | Not enough vitamin K in the system is a predisposing risk factor for osteoporosis. New research has shown that this little known vitamin is the key to calcium balance in the body. |
Folic Acid| | Folate (folic acid) and the B-vitamins involved in homocysteine conversion (such as B12 and B6) may be beneficial in reducing the risk of osteoporosis because high levels of homocysteine are implicated in chronic diseases such as osteoporosis. |
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KEY | | Weak or unproven link | | | Strong or generally accepted link | | | Proven definite or direct link | | | Weakly counter-indicative | | | Strongly counter-indicative | | | May do some good | | | Likely to help | | | Highly recommended |
GLOSSARY
Acidosis
Specifically, the abnormal buildup of acids in the body, classically caused by diabetes or kidney disease. Broadly, the potential caused by increased protein intake or metabolism, coupled with inadequate intake (or loss) of alkali.
Acne
A chronic skin disorder due to inflammation of hair follicles and sebaceous glands (secretion glands in the skin).
AIDS
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. An immune system deficiency disorder that suddenly alters the body's ability to defend itself. The AIDS virus invades the T4 helper/inducer lymphocytes and multiplies, causing a breakdown in the body's immune system, eventually leading to overwhelming infection and/or cancer, with ultimate death.
Amino Acid (Amino Acids)
An organic acid containing nitrogen chemical building blocks that aid in the production of protein in the body. Eight of the twenty-two known amino acids are considered "essential," and must be obtained from dietary sources because the body can not synthesize them.
Anabolic (Anabolism)
Promoting anabolism: Allow the conversion of nutritive material into complex living matter in the constructive metabolism. Specifically, an agent or function that stimulates the organization of smaller substances into larger ones. Examples: making a starch out of sugars, a protein out of amino acids, or making triglycerides out of fatty acids are anabolic functions. Anabolic steroids are internal or external substances that will induce increased body size or mass. The opposite of catabolic.
Anorexia Nervosa (Anorexia)
An eating disorder characterized by excess control - a morbid fear of obesity leads the sufferer to try and limit or reduce their weight by excessive dieting, exercising, vomiting, purging and use of diuretics. Sufferers are typically more than 15% below the average weight for their height/sex/age and typically have amenorrhea (if female) or low libido (if male). 1-2% of female teenagers are anorexic.
Antacid (Antacids)
Neutralizes acid in the stomach, esophagus, or first part of the duodenum.
Antibody (Antibodies)
A type of serum protein (globulin) synthesized by white blood cells of the lymphoid type in response to an antigenic (foreign substance) stimulus. Antibodies are complex substances formed to neutralize or destroy these antigens in the blood. Antibody activity normally fights infection but can be damaging in allergies and a group of diseases that are called autoimmune diseases.
Arthritis (Arthritic)
Inflammation of a joint, usually accompanied by pain, swelling, and stiffness, and resulting from infection, trauma, degenerative changes, metabolic disturbances, or other causes. It occurs in various forms, such as bacterial arthritis, osteoarthritis, or rheumatoid arthritis. Osteoarthritis, the most common form, is characterized by a gradual loss of cartilage and often an overgrowth of bone at the joints.
Asymptomatic
Not showing symptoms.
Calcium
The body's most abundant mineral. Its primary function is to help build and maintain bones and teeth. The body also needs calcium to carry nerve signals, keep the heart functioning, contract muscles, clot blood and maintain healthy skin. Calcium helps control blood acid-alkaline balance, plays a role in cell division, muscle growth and iron utilization, activates certain enzymes, and helps transport nutrients through cell membranes. Calcium also forms a cellular cement called ground substance that helps hold cells and tissues together.
Cancer
Refers to the various types of malignant neoplasms that contain cells growing out of control and invading adjacent tissues, which may metastasize to distant tissues.
Cardiac
Pertaining to the heart, also, pertaining to the stomach area adjacent to the esophagus.
Cardiovascular
Pertaining to the heart and blood vessels.
Celiac
Pertaining to the abdomen.
Chemotherapy
A treatment of disease by any chemicals. Used most often to refer to the chemical treatments used to combat cancer cells. Chemotherapy is usually given in cycles: a treatment period followed by a recovery period, then another treatment period, and so on. Most anticancer drugs are given by injection into a blood vessel (IV); some are given by mouth. Chemotherapy is a systemic therapy, meaning that the drugs enter the bloodstream and travel throughout the body. Usually, a patient has chemotherapy as an outpatient (at the hospital, at the doctor's office, or at home). However, depending on which drugs are given and the patient's general health, a short hospital stay may be needed.
Chronic (Chronicity)
Usually referring to chronic illness: Illness extending over a long period of time.
Cobalamin (B12, B-12, Cobalamine, Vitamin B12)
Essential for normal growth and functioning of all body cells, especially those of bone marrow (red blood cell formation), gastrointestinal tract and nervous system, it prevents pernicious anemia and plays a crucial part in the reproduction of every cell of the body i.e. synthesis of genetic material (DNA).
Colitis
Colon inflammation, usually involving the mucus membranes. Mucus colitis is a type with cramps, periods of constipation, and copious discharge of mucus with feces. Ulcerative colitis has pain, inflammation, ulceration, fever, and bleeding, all interspersed at various times - a long and serious illness.
Collagen
The primary protein within white fibers of connective tissue and the organic substance found in tendons, ligaments, cartilage, skin, teeth and bone.
Copper
An essential mineral that is a component of several important enzymes in the body and is essential to good health. Copper is found in all body tissues. Copper deficiency leads to a variety of abnormalities, including anemia, skeletal defects, degeneration of the nervous system, reproductive failure, pronounced cardiovascular lesions, elevated blood cholesterol, impaired immunity and defects in the pigmentation and structure of hair. Copper is involved in iron incorporation into hemoglobin. It is also involved with vitamin C in the formation of collagen and the proper functioning in central nervous system. More than a dozen enzymes have been found to contain copper. The best studied are superoxide dismutase (SOD), cytochrome C oxidase, catalase, dopamine hydroxylase, uricase, tryptophan dioxygenase, lecithinase and other monoamine and diamine oxidases.
Corticosteroid (Corticosteroids)
Steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex.
Cortisol
A hormone. Its most important function is to help the body respond to stress. It also helps regulate your body's use of protein, carbohydrates and fat; it helps maintain blood pressure and cardiovascular function; it stems inflammation.
Diabetes Mellitus (Diabetes, Diabetic, Diabetics)
A disease with increased blood glucose levels due to lack or ineffectiveness of insulin. Diabetes is found in two forms; insulin-dependent diabetes (juvenile-onset) and non-insulin-dependent (adult-onset). Symptoms include increased thirst; increased urination; weight loss in spite of increased appetite; fatigue; nausea; vomiting; frequent infections including bladder, vaginal, and skin; blurred vision; impotence in men; bad breath; cessation of menses; diminished skin fullness. Other symptoms include bleeding gums; ear noise/buzzing; diarrhea; depression; confusion.
Epidemiology
The study of the causes and distribution of disease in human populations.
Estrogen (Oestrogen)
One of the female sex hormones produced by the ovaries.
Folic Acid
A B-complex vitamin that functions along with vitamin B-12 and vitamin C in the utilization of proteins. It has an essential role in the formation of heme (the iron containing protein in hemoglobin necessary for the formation of red blood cells) and DNA. Folic acid is essential during pregnancy to prevent neural tubular defects in the developing fetus.
Gram (gm, gms, Gramme, Grammes, Grams)
A metric unit of weight, there being approximately 28 grams in one ounce.
Hormones (Hormone)
Chemical substances secreted by a variety of body organs that are carried by the bloodstream and usually influence cells some distance from the source of production. Hormones signal certain enzymes to perform their functions and, in this way, regulate such body functions as blood sugar levels, insulin levels, the menstrual cycle, and growth. These can be prescription, over-the-counter, synthetic or natural agents. Examples include adrenal hormones such as corticosteroids and aldosterone; glucagon, growth hormone, insulin, testosterone, estrogens, progestins, progesterone, DHEA, melatonin, and thyroid hormones such as thyroxine and calcitonin.
Immune System (Immune Response, Immunity)
A complex that protects the body from disease organisms and other foreign bodies. The system includes the humoral immune response and the cell-mediated response. The immune system also protects the body from invasion by making local barriers and inflammation. The process may involve acquired immunity (the ability to learn and remember a specific infectious agent), or innate immunity (the genetically programmed system of responses that attack, digest, remove, and initiate inflammation and tissue healing).
Iron
An essential mineral. Prevents anemia: as a constituent of hemoglobin, transports oxygen throughout the body. Virtually all of the oxygen used by cells in the life process are brought to the cells by the hemoglobin of red blood cells. Iron is a small but most vital, component of the hemoglobin in 20,000 billion red blood cells, of which 115 million are formed every minute. Heme iron (from meat) is absorbed 10 times more readily than the ferrous or ferric form.
IU (mIU, uIU)
International Unit: An arbitrarily defined but agreed upon unit that depends on what is being measured.
mIU: 0.001 or one thousandth of an IU.
uIU: 0.000001 or one millionth of an IU.
Kidney Stone (Kidney Gravel, Kidney Stones)
A stone (concretion) in the kidney. If the stone is large enough to block the tube (ureter) and stop the flow of urine from the kidney, it must be removed by surgery or other methods. Also called Renal Calculus. Symptoms usually begin with intense waves of pain as a stone moves in the urinary tract. Typically, a person feels a sharp, cramping pain in the back and side in the area of the kidney or in the lower abdomen. Sometimes nausea and vomiting occur. Later, pain may spread to the groin. The pain may continue if the stone is too large to pass; blood may appear in the urine and there may be the need to urinate more often or a burning sensation during urination. If fever and chills accompany any of these symptoms, an infection may be present and a doctor should be seen immediately.
Kidneys (Kidney, Renal)
Bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. They are located near the middle of the back, just below the rib cage. The kidneys are sophisticated reprocessing machines, each day handling about 50 gallons of blood to sift out about half a gallon of waste products and extra water. The waste and extra water become urine, which flows to the bladder through tubes called ureters. The actual filtering occurs in tiny units inside the kidneys called nephrons. Every kidney has about a million nephrons. In a nephron, a glomerulus -- which is a tiny blood vessel, or capillary -- intertwines with a tiny urine-collecting tube called a tubule. A complicated chemical exchange takes place, as waste materials and water leave your blood and enter your urinary system. The kidneys recycle chemicals such as sodium, phosphorus, and potassium and thus regulate their levels. Renal: Pertaining to the kidneys.
Lactose Intolerance (Lactose Intolerant)
A condition caused by a lack of an enzyme called lactase, which, in turn, causes the body to be unable to digest lactose, a sugar found in milk products. Common symptoms, which begin about 30 minutes to two hours after consuming foods or beverages containing lactose, may include: nausea, cramps, bloating, gas and/or diarrhea. The severity of symptoms varies depending on the amount of lactose consumed and the amount that an individual can tolerate.
Lumbar (Lumbar Region)
Lumbar Region: The lower back, five segments of the spinal chord and column, between the sacrum and thoracic regions.
Lung (Lungs, Pulmonary)
Organ of the body, located in the chest cavity which is designed to bring oxygen from the air into the blood stream, while also expelling carbon dioxide and other waste gases out of the body. Pulmonary: Related to the lungs.
Magnesium
An essential mineral. The chief function of magnesium is to activate certain enzymes, especially those related to carbohydrate metabolism. Another role is to maintain the electrical potential across nerve and muscle membranes. It is essential for proper heartbeat and nerve transmission. Magnesium controls many cellular functions. It is involved in protein formation, DNA production and function and in the storage and release of energy in ATP. Magnesium is closely related to calcium and phosphorus in body function. The average adult body contains approximately one ounce of magnesium. It is the fifth mineral in abundance within the body--behind calcium, phosphorus, potassium and sodium. Although about 70 percent of the body's magnesium is contained in the teeth and bones, its most important functions are carried out by the remainder which is present in the cells of the soft tissues and in the fluid surrounding those cells.
Malabsorption
Improper utilization of needed and available nutrients, either from impaired digestive function (such as B12 being unabsorbed because of gastritis), impaired absorption (poor Vitamin E absorption because of an inflamed ileum) or impaired transport (the diminished blood proteins of the advanced alcoholic). There are other causes as well.
Manganese
An essential mineral found in trace amounts in tissues of the body. Adults normally contain an average of 10 to 20mg of manganese in their bodies, most of which is contained in bone, the liver and the kidneys. Manganese is essential to several critical enzymes necessary for energy production, bone and blood formation, nerve function and protein metabolism. It is involved in the metabolism of fats and glucose, the production of cholesterol and it allows the body to use thiamine and Vitamin E. It is also involved in the building and degrading of proteins and nucleic acid, biogenic amine metabolism, which involves the transmitting of nerve impulses.
Menopause (Menopausal)
The cessation of menstruation (usually not official until 12 months have passed without periods), occurring at the average age of 52. As commonly used, the word denotes the time of a woman's life, usually between the ages of 45 and 54, when periods cease and any symptoms of low estrogen levels persist, including hot flashes, insomnia, anxiety, mood swings, loss of libido and vaginal dryness. When these early menopausal symptoms subside, a woman becomes postmenopausal.
Metabolism (Metabolic, Metabolize, Metabolizes, Metabolizing)
The chemical processes of living cells in which energy is produced in order to replace and repair tissues and maintain a healthy body. Responsible for the production of energy, biosynthesis of important substances, and degradation of various compounds. Also defined as the sum total of changes in an organism in order to achieve a balance (homeostasis): Catabolic burns up, anabolic stores and builds up; the sum of their work is metabolism.
Microgram (mcg, Micrograms, ug)
0.000001 or a millionth of a gram.
Migraine (Migraine Headache, Migraine Headaches, Migraines)
Not just a headache, but a disorder affecting the whole body, characterized by clearly defined attacks lasting from about 4 to 72 hours, separated by headache-free periods; progresses through five distinct phases. Prodrome: experienced by about 50% of migraineurs and starting up to 24 hours before the headache - changes in mood, sensory perception, food craving, excessive yawning, or speech or memory problems. Aura: experienced by about 15% and starting within an hour before the headache - disruption of vision (flashing lights, shimmering zigzag lines, blind spot) or sensation (numbness or 'pins and needles' around the lips or hand), or difficulty speaking. Headache: usually pulsating and occurring on one side of the head, it may occur on both sides of the head and alternate from side to side. Muscles in the neck and scalp may be tender; there may be nausea and the desire not to eat, move, see or hear. Resolution: the headache disappears and the body returns to normal. Resolution may occur over several hours during sleep or rest; an intense emotional experience or vomiting may also end the headache. Postdrome: After the headache stops, the sufferer feels drained, fatigued and tired. Muscles ache, emotions are volatile and thinking is slow.
Milligram (mg, Milligrams)
0.001 or a thousandth of a gram.
Mineral (Minerals)
Plays a vital role in regulating many body functions. They act as catalysts in nerve response, muscle contraction and the metabolism of nutrients in foods. They regulate electrolyte balance and hormonal production, and they strengthen skeletal structures.
Mucous Membranes (Mucosa, Mucous Membrane, Mucus Membranes)
The membranes, such as the mouth, nose, anus, and vagina, that line the cavities and canals of the body which communicate with the air.
Nausea
Symptoms resulting from an inclination to vomit.
Osteoblast (Osteoblastic, Osteoblasts)
A bone-forming cell.
Osteoporosis
A disease in which bone tissue becomes porous and brittle. The disease primarily affects postmenopausal women.
Ounce (Ounces, oz)
Approximately 28 grams.
Parathyroid Hormone
A hormone released by the parathyroid glands that acts to keep a constant level of calcium in body tissues.
Perimenopause (Perimenopausal)
A transition time during which menstrual periods can become irregular and symptoms of menopause may be experienced prior to menopause. On average, the onset of perimenopause occurs around age 47 and the average duration is 4-5 years. It is increasingly seen in women even up to 12-15 years before menopause. An array of physical, mental and emotional symptoms can occur during this time.
pH
A measure of an environment's acidity or alkalinity. The more acidic the solution, the lower the pH. For example, a pH of 1 is very acidic; a pH of 7 is neutral; a pH of 14 is very alkaline.
Phosphorus
The second most abundant mineral in the body, found in every living cell. It is involved in the proper functioning of both muscles and nerves. It is needed for metabolic processes of all cells, to activate many other nutrients, and to form energy-storage and energy-releasing compounds. The phosphorus content of the body is approximately 1% of total body weight. Phosphorus combines with fats to form phospholipids. Combined with calcium, it gives strength and rigidity to the bones and teeth.
Phytoestrogen (Phytoestrogens)
A plant substance with activity similar to human estrogen, but with important differences. Like real estrogen, plant estrogens bind to estrogen receptors in cells, thereby preventing real estrogen from binding to these cells. Unlike real estrogen, however, plant estrogens do not stimulate cell growth, therefore, plant estrogens are believed to inhibit the growth of tumors that would normally be stimulated to grow by real estrogen.
Postmenopause (Postmenopausal)
The postmenopausal phase of a woman's life begins when 12 full months have passed since the last menstrual period and any menopausal symptoms have become milder and/or less frequent.
Potassium
A mineral that serves as an electrolyte and is involved in the balance of fluid within the body. Our bodies contain more than twice as much potassium as sodium (typically 9oz versus 4oz). About 98% of total body potassium is inside our cells. Potassium is the principal cation (positive ion) of the fluid within cells and is important in controlling the activity of the heart, muscles, nervous system and just about every cell in the body. Potassium regulates the water balance and acid-base balance in the blood and tissues. Evidence is showing that potassium is also involved in bone calcification. Potassium is a cofactor in many reactions, especially those involving energy production and muscle building.
Precursor (Precursors)
A biochemical substance, such as an intermediate compound in a chain of enzymatic reactions, from which a more stable or definitive product is formed.
Premenopause (Premenopausal)
The period when women of childbearing age experience relatively normal reproductive function (including regular periods).
Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)
PMS consists of various physical and/or emotional symptoms that occur in the second half of the menstrual cycle, after ovulation. The symptoms begin about midcycle, are generally the most intense during the last seven days before menstruation and include: acne; backache; bloating; fatigue; headache; sore breasts; changes in sexual desire; depression; difficulty concentrating; difficulty handling stress; irritability; tearfulness.
Progesterone
This is the hormone secreted after ovulation by the corpus luteum. It is a steroid (similar to a cholesterol), enters receptive cells to stimulate their growth, and acts as an anabolic agent. Estrogen should be viewed as the primary coat underneath all the cycles during a woman's reproductive years, with progesterone, its antagonist, surging for ten or twelve days in ovulatory months. Most of the actions of progesterone cannot occur without estrogen having previously induced the growth of progesterone-receptive binding sites.
Protein (Proteins)
Compounds composed of hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen present in the body and in foods that form complex combinations of amino acids. Protein is essential for life and is used for growth and repair. Foods that supply the body with protein include animal products, grains, legumes, and vegetables. Proteins from animal sources contain the essential amino acids. Proteins are changed to amino acids in the body.
RDA (RDAs, US RDA, USRDA)
Recommended Daily Allowance of vitamins or other nutrients as determined by the FDA. U.S. RDAs are more widely used than RDAs, and focus on 3 age groups: Infants of 0-12 months; Children of 1-4 years; Adults and children of more than 4 years.
Refined Sugar (Refined Sugars)
The term 'refined sugar' includes not only the "sugar" listed in ingredient listings, but also brown sugar, glucose, fructose and dextrose. Obvious sources include jams and jellies; hidden sources are often mayonnaise, ketchup, salad dressings and other condiments.
Rheumatism (Rheumatoid)
General term applied to conditions of pain, or inability to articulate, various elements of the musculoskeletal system.
Rheumatoid Arthritis
A long-term, destructive connective tissue disease that results from the body rejecting its own tissue cells (autoimmune reaction).
Sodium
An essential mineral that our bodies regulate and conserve. Excess sodium retention increases the fluid volume (edema) and low sodium leads to less fluid and relative dehydration. The adult body averages a total content of over 100 grams of sodium, of which a surprising one-third is in bone. A small amount of sodium does get into cell interiors, but this represents only about ten percent of the body content. The remaining 57 percent or so of the body sodium content is in the fluid immediately surrounding the cells, where it is the major cation (positive ion). The role of sodium in the extracellular fluid is maintaining osmotic equilibrium (the proper difference in ions dissolved in the fluids inside and outside the cell) and extracellular fluid volume. Sodium is also involved in nerve impulse transmission, muscle tone and nutrient transport. All of these functions are interrelated with potassium.
Steroid (Steroids)
Any of a large number of hormonal substances with a similar basic chemical structure containing a 17-carbon 14-ring system and including the sterols and various hormones and glycosides.
Stomach
A hollow, muscular, J-shaped pouch located in the upper part of the abdomen to the left of the midline. The upper end (fundus) is large and dome-shaped; the area just below the fundus is called the body of the stomach. The fundus and the body are often referred to as the cardiac portion of the stomach. The lower (pyloric) portion curves downward and to the right and includes the antrum and the pylorus. The function of the stomach is to begin digestion by physically breaking down food received from the esophagus. The tissues of the stomach wall are composed of three types of muscle fibers: circular, longitudinal and oblique. These fibers create structural elasticity and contractibility, both of which are needed for digestion. The stomach mucosa contains cells which secrete hydrochloric acid and this in turn activates the other gastric enzymes pepsin and rennin. To protect itself from being destroyed by its own enzymes, the stomach’s mucous lining must constantly regenerate itself.
Testosterone
The principal male sex hormone that induces and maintains the changes that take place in males at puberty. In men, the testicles continue to produce testosterone throughout life, though there is some decline with age. A naturally occurring androgenic hormone.
Thrombosis
Formation of blood clots causing vascular obstruction.
Thyroid (Thyroid Gland)
The thyroid gland is an organ with many veins, anchored around the front of the throat near the voice box. It is essential to normal body growth in infancy and childhood. It absorbs iodine from the diet and releases thyroid hormones - iodine-containing compounds that help govern the rate of the body's metabolism (its total life processes), affecting body temperature, and regulating protein, fat and carbohydrate catabolism in all cells. They keep up growth hormone release, skeletal maturation, and heart rate, force, and output. They promote central nervous system growth, stimulate the making of many enzymes, and are necessary for muscle tone and vigor. To a high degree, metabolism is regulated by the hormone thyroxine, which can be made by the thyroid if enough organic iodine is available. An enlarged thyroid gland that is not cancer is sometimes called goitre.
Trace Element (Trace Elements, Trace Mineral, Trace Minerals)
A mineral or element that is essential, in small amounts, for good health. Nutritionists prefer to call minerals either minerals or trace minerals depending on the amount needed by the body, while analytical chemists prefer to call minerals 'trace elements'.
Ulcer (Ulceration, Ulcers)
Lesion on the skin or mucous membrane.
Uterus (Uterine)
The part of the female reproductive system specialized to allow the implantation, growth and nourishment of a fetus during pregnancy.
Vegan (Veganism, Vegans)
A person who consumes no animal products of any kind. In other words, vegans do not consume meat, fish, fowl, dairy products, eggs, honey, or products containing gelatin or any other animal-derived ingredients such as whey powder or food colorings.
Vegetarian (Lacto-Ovo-Vegetarian, Vegetarianism, Vegetarians)
A person who consumes no meat, fish or fowl (chicken, turkey, etc.), but who may consume animal products such as dairy products (milk, cheese, butter, etc.), eggs or honey.
Vitamin B6 (B6, B-6)
Influences many body functions including regulating blood glucose levels, manufacturing hemoglobin and aiding the utilization of protein, carbohydrates and fats. It also aids in the function of the nervous system.
Vitamin D
A fat-soluble vitamin essential to one's health. Regulates the amount of calcium and phosphorus in the blood by improving their absorption and utilization. Necessary for normal growth and formation of bones and teeth. For Vitamin D only, 1mcg translates to 40 IU.
Vitamin K
Helps the blood clot when the body is injured.
Zinc
An essential trace mineral. The functions of zinc are enzymatic. There are over 70 metalloenzymes known to require zinc for their functions. The main biochemicals in which zinc has been found to be necessary include: enzymes and enzymatic function, protein synthesis and carbohydrate metabolism. Zinc is a constituent of insulin and male reproductive fluid. Zinc is necessary for the proper metabolism of alcohol, to get rid of the lactic acid that builds up in working muscles and to transfer it to the lungs. Zinc is involved in the health of the immune system, assists vitamin A utilization and is involved in the formation of bone and teeth.
Last updated: May 04, 2008
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